London Labour and the London Poor

These sections cover the various performers who operated on London’s streets. Mayhew begins with puppet performers, such as the Punch showmen. He provides insights into the shows’ technical and creative aspects as well as the challenges that faced the puppeteers, such as declining earnings. He highlights the camaraderie among Punch showpeople and the community interactions. Mayhew then pivots from detailing specific performers to describing the British tradition of Guy Fawkes Day. He discusses its history and the shift in the effigies from depicting historical individuals to depicting those who represented celebrities and political figures.

Mayhew returns to the topic of street performers by discussing their various types, including acrobats, conjurers, fire eaters, snake swallowers, clowns, and other unique entertainers. He shares their personal histories, the techniques they used in their acts, the reactions of their audiences, and the financial aspects of their professions. He also describes the life and practices of strolling actors, known as “mummers,” who had their own slang and often performed in canvas booths during fairs. Mayhew describes different fair pieces that they performed during these events. Private business performances, which took place outside fairs, involved more complete plays with some parts omitted and improvised dialogue. In addition, Mayhew touches on the legal issues that strolling actors faced in certain circumstances, such as performing without a license. Another performance profession that Mayhew discusses is ballet performers, who presented ballets as comic pieces; well-known clowns often performed the comic roles. Exhibitors of curiosities were yet another type of performer; within this category were showpeople who manipulated mechanical figures as well as telescope exhibitors, microscope presenters, and military exercise exhibitors.

Mayhew next describes the exhibitors of trained animals, focusing mostly on the “Happy Family” exhibitions, which showcased a collection of animals coexisting in a single cage. He notes that some animals, such as monkeys, were easier to work with, while others, like hawks and ferrets, were harder. Additionally, he describes exhibitors of trained birds and mice.

These sections cover various labor professions, particularly those related to coal handling, cabinetmaking, and producing doll’s eyes. In describing the cabinetmaking trade, Mayhew highlights the divide between men who belonged to trade societies and those who did not: The latter faced the issues of oversupply and exploitation. The author then delves into the manufacturing of doll’s eyes, discussing the distinction between common and natural (lifelike) doll eyes and their uses.

Next, Mayhew discusses the challenges and injustices facing laborers in the coal trade and related industries in 19th-century London. Mayhew describes their struggles with alcohol consumption, exploitation, and poor working conditions. He provides insights into the various classes of laborers in the coal industry. In discussing the ballast heavers, he reveals how publicans and intermediaries exploited these workers’ dependence on alcohol to secure employment. He emphasizes the negative impact of this system on the well-being of the ballast heavers and their families. He continues this reasoning by exploring the detrimental effects of alcohol consumption, particularly among the laboring class. He also presents testimonies from ballast heavers’ wives, offering accounts of the hardships resulting from their husbands’ alcohol-driven behaviors.

Mayhew then describes the casual dock laborers who engaged in physically demanding tasks, such as unloading ships, wheeling goods, and operating winches. He highlights the work’s precarious nature. Casual laborers often waited for jobs, and their wages fluctuated based on the demand for labor. This fluctuation resulted in economic hardship and increased rates of vagrancy or pauperism. In addition, Mayhew draws attention to the living conditions of the laborers, noting the stark contrast between the wealth that the dock operations generated and the poverty that the dock workers and their families experienced. He discusses efforts to change the system, including using a “ticket” system to promote good conduct.

Additionally, Mayhew describes the conditions and inhabitants of cheap lodging houses in London. He focuses on a particular house, giving descriptions of the building and the people who lived there, most of whom were casual laborers, beggars, and pickpockets.

These sections focus on the various types of transit in London and the workers who operated them. Mayhew highlights the expansion of railway networks, revealing insights into their operational lengths and the role of steam power in their development. He acknowledges the financial intricacies of railway projects and illustrates the diverse workforce required for the operation of these railways. The text underscores the safety record of railways compared to other modes of travel. This data-driven account highlights the increasing popularity of railways and their importance in the transportation landscape.

Mayhew then turns to inland navigation, particularly of canals and rivers. He discusses the role of Thames watermen, who transported goods along the river. Initially engaged in transporting produce, privileged watermen once held special rights associated with nobility and dignitaries. However, the advent of steamers and changes in transportation affected their trade, leading to financial struggles, poverty, and the formation of clubs to protect their interests. In addition, Mayhew discusses the steamboats themselves and talks about their growing popularity and the changes they brought to river transportation, also mentioning the challenges of steam navigation and the efforts to regulate and improve safety.

He then describes the forms of land transportation on the streets of London. The first is the omnibus. Mayhew describes the extensive network of omnibus routes throughout the city, the fare structure, and the role of the omnibuses in connecting the city and its suburbs. Mayhew then covers the regulatory changes, the decline in the comfort of hackney coaches, and the rise of cab transportation. He also delves into the different types of cab drivers and discusses the public and private uses of carriages and horses, providing statistics on their numbers, usage, and revenue generation. Additionally, Mayhew explores the roles and regulations of the porters of goods in London, distinguishing among the different classes of porters, and discusses the concerns about changes in transportation methods affecting their traditional roles.

The last sections of Volume 3 cover the issue of vagrancy in London. Mayhew attributes its causes to uncertain employment, economic challenges, and the unintentional consequences of the “casual wards” established to aid unemployed individuals. He differentiates between honest working-class individuals and vagrant beggars, highlighting the virtues of the former, and distinguishes Irish vagrants, driven by poverty, from those seeking temporary work. Disease transmission and associated costs are among the other topics, and Mayhew advocates for better management by police. He emphasizes vagrancy’s connection to crime through reports and testimonies, as well as statistics highlighting vagrancy’s significance. The root causes of vagrancy include temperament, upbringing, and negative influences. Additionally, Mayhew discusses the London Vagrants’ Asylums, which offered seasonal shelter to unhoused individuals during harsh weather conditions. The shelters attracted people from various backgrounds, including laborers seeking work and professional vagrants. Mayhew details the admission process, examinations, and accommodations. These institutions provided temporary refuge for those experiencing exposure and malnutrition. Interviews with the superintendent reveal that those who sought shelter included unemployed laborers, artisans, sailors, and Irish immigrants.